In the year 1901, Nigeria officially became a part of the huge British Empire. Colonial Lagos was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Following Lugards success in the north, he set out the principles of the administrative system subsequently institutionalized as indirect rule. Essentially, local government was to be left in the hands of the traditional chiefs, subject to the guidance of European officers. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. Nigeria (/ n a d r i / ny-JEER-ee-), officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa.It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea to the south in the Atlantic Ocean.It covers an area of 923,769 square kilometres (356,669 sq mi), and with a population of over 225 million, it is the most populous country in Africa, and the world's . In addition to their economic grievances, they also called for the end of the reform of the native courts. A.J. [59], Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon. By the 1950s, there were organized nationalist parties that demanded political independence in almost every colony in Africa. The colonisers decided to use divide and rule method . [67], The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness and complexity of indigenous cultures. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. The European struggle to establish forts and trading posts on the West African coast from about the mid-1600s to the mid-1700s was part of the wider competition for trade and empire in the Atlantic. History of Islam in Nigeria. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and protectorate was presided over by a proconsul, who was entitled the Governor-General of Nigeria. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. The Nigerian Legislative Council was established in 1914 and was given limited jurisdiction; it was replaced in 1922 by a larger one that included elected members from Lagos and Calabar, although its powers also were limited and the northern provinces remained outside its control. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. In the immediate post-World War II period, Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. They later discovered that the demand for . Main aim. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. 2, p. 211-221. . Davies and Nnamdi Azikiwe. [50] In the same year, the British created the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel Frederick Lugard. Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of Harold Laski at the London School of Economics, whose political orientation was considered left-wing. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. . In: The Journal of African History: (1990 . After 1940, political activities were broadened to include more people. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. Quiz. The Central African Federation, embracing Nyasaland, Northern and Southern Rhodesia, was created in 1953 . This primary resistance was not unified and centered, yet it allowed understanding that the colonial rule and the presence of Europeans in Africa were negative (Chamberlain 89). Portuguese Roman Catholic priests who accompanied traders and officials to the West African coast introduced Christianity to the Edo Empire in the fifteenth century. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. The British, like other newcomers to the slave trade, found . [17] In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute. Before 1898, the scramble for Africa by European countries led to the partition of Africa after the Berlin conference of 1884-85. [74] But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior. From 1886 to 1899, much of the country was ruled by the Royal Niger Company, authorised by charter, and governed by George Taubman Goldie. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". In response to Azikiwe and other nationalists, the Lyttelton constitution of 1954 created a fully federal system, comprising the three geographic regions of Nigeria, the Southern Cameroons, and the Federal Territory of Lagos. The officers of the RWAFF were British. In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally self-governing under the parliamentary system. I will be dealing almost exclusively with the areas of East and Central Africa - Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe - where a more or less coherent debate can be seen. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. Nigeria in the past was forced to participate in the slave trade. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. The Northern People's Congress (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, was appointed Prime Minister of Nigeria. [57], Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. [27] To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly subsistence to the production of palm oil as a cash crop.[28]. An example was that at Onitsha, where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. The most important of these was a near fetish with indirect rule that was supposed to facilitate a cheap and effective ruling strategy. Although this trade grew to significant proportionspalm oil exports alone were worth 1 billion a year by 1840it was concentrated near the coast, where palm trees grew in abundance. [11], By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. It was replaced by a new coalition government led by David Lloyd George featuring Conservatives and Lloyd George's supporters in the Liberal Party, while Asquith and the remainder of the Liberals entered opposition.[69]. Ouidah (now part of Benin) and Lagos were the major ports on the coast. In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. Hausa was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. [65], Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. (This was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time.) This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the Nigerian Police Force. British colonialism created Nigeria, but did little to make it a viable, stable, self-sustaining national entity. Jaja of Opobo allied with hrs old friends namely Alobo and Onaba to resist the British colonialists in the Niger Delta states. Because Western education and Christianity spread rapidly in the south and not in the north, development was much slower in the north, and the growing disparity between north and south later caused political tensions. Armed resistance decreased in the 1920s but protest continued, "characterised by civil rights and civil . Nigeria Lugard and Indirect Rule. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the Richards Constitution. . The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. After the Berlin Conference of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the Oil Rivers Protectorate, which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. It occurs when one nation subjugates another, conquering its population and exploiting it, often while . Indigenous responses to imperialism during the period of 1750-1900 varied widely depending on the specific group of people and the imperial power they were interacting with. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. [82], Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. Although colonial rule appeared secure in the first two decades of the 20th century, the British struggled to keep control of their Nigerian colony and continued to do so until Nigeria became independent in 1960. In the South, only English had official status. Nigerians also requested more political representation. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. Because of the hazards of climate and tropical diseases for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta, and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. 3 The Amakholwa's upsurge as a black, conservative, and educated class in the Cape Colony helped establish political resistance to colonial rule. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disasterthe Great Drought of 191314. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. In these territories, violent resistance brought colonial rule to a close. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were Residents and District Officers, responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the interwar period derived both from an older political particularism and broad pan-Africanism, rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia, led his army to accomplish this unique feat in March 1896, defeating General Oreste Baratieri's Italian . [56], Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. By the end of World War I, most of Africa had been effectively colonized. RESISTANCE. In her . As a historical event, anticolonialism means the struggle against imperial rule in colonized countries, mostly during the first half of the twentieth century. [64], Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. Published August 7, 2020. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.[68]. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. How did Algerias resistance to French control differ rom East africas resistance to German rule. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Colonial Nigeria was the area of West Africa that became the modern day Nigeria, during the time of British rule in the 19th and 20th centuries. Goods were made available on credit to African middlemen, who were expected to trade them at a pre-arranged price and deliver the proceeds to the company. He shows that, long before the growth of a mass independence movement in the wake of the second world war, there was considerable opposition to colonial rule. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Colonialism is defined as "control by one power over a dependent area or people.". At the urging of Governor Frederick Lugard, the two territories were amalgamated as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, while maintaining considerable regional autonomy among the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos). The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned Mungo Park, an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. [72] In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). The Governor-General represented the British monarch as head of state and was appointed by the Crown on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. [46] Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. In Nigeria, the British colonial administration found perhaps the longest-lasting resistance movement. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Indigenous Resistance to New Colonialism. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. However, in October 1929 in Oloko a census related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul John Beecroft to encourage the overthrow of the regime. Critics, including representatives of the Middle Belt who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential separatist movements.[85]. Selected petitions and written correspondence between Igbo women and British officials between 1892 and 1960 shed fresh light on how women navigated . Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the West African Students Union, founded in London in 1925. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at Port Harcourt. [45], A campaign against the Sokoto Caliphate began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. Hogendorn. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. practice of indirect rule, Brown contends that culture industries like Nollywood can sustain capitalism . After initially adopting an indirect rule approach, in 1906 the British merged the small Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate into a new Colony of Southern Nigeria, and in 1914 that was combined with the Northern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Strategic Theory, Dynamics, Methods and Movements ), contains accounts of the role of nonviolent action in anti-colonial struggles in Africa - Algeria, Ghana, Mozambique, and Zambia - and also in Bangladesh. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the Governor-General and his appointed Executive Council, the so-called Richards Constitution (after Governor-General Sir Arthur Richards, who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. In 1929, this incident in Nigeria later became one of the reasons for the fight against colonial rule in Africa A) The Nigerian Oil crisis B) The Aba Women's Revolt C) . Progressive constitutions after World War II provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. of British Colonial Nigeria. A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. [58], Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the Bight of Biafra. Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the, Developments in colonial policy under Clifford, Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism, Constitutional conferences in the UK (195758), All of this section to this point is from. [19], The company considered itself the sole legitimate government of the area, with executive, legislative and judicial powers all subordinate to the rule of a council created by the company board of directors in London. Resistance to colonial rule took a number of forms, incrementally moving Nigeria toward independence. [73] The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, Sir Frederick Lugard (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 19001906". Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.[84]. Demanding immediate self-government, the Action Group was opposed by the Northern Peoples Congress (NPC), which was composed largely of northerners and headed by several leaders, including Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. In the ensuing decade, resistance to colonial rule continued, but Africans altered their tactics and women featured prominently in anticolonial resistance when cultural changes tended to disadvantage women. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the Nigerian federal government at Lagos. . Consequently, in 1849, John Beecroft was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from Dahomey to Cameroon. David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Ptr-Grenouilleau. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. In 1922 Kamerun was divided under a League of Nations mandate between France and Britain, Britain administering its area within the government of Nigeria; after 1946 the mandated areas were redesignated as a United Nations (UN) trust territory. However, it is thought that the Nigerians themselves were providing the . Nigeria is a good example. However, decolonization also brought regionalization and a hardening of ethnic identities. Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1719. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. [19] This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. The legitimate trade in commodities attracted a number of British merchants to the Niger River, as well as some men who had been formerly engaged in the slave trade but who now changed their line of wares. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 19071911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano. Thanks. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. [73] The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including, travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. 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